Constructivism

A philosophy that views learning as an active process in which learners construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world through action and reflection. Constructivists argue that individuals generate rules and mental models as the result of their experiences with both other human subjects and their environments and in turn use these rules and models to make sense of new experiences.

Three important concepts emerge from this definition:

Knowledge is socially constructed. It is not something that exists outside of language and the social subjects who use it. Learning--obtaining knowledge and making meaning--is thus a social process rather than the work of the isolated individual mind; it cannot be divorced from learners' social context.
Learning is an active process. Students learn by doing rather than by passively absorbing information.
Knowledge is constructed from experience. Students bring prior knowledge into a learning situation, which in turn forms the basis for their construction of new knowledge. Upon encountering something new, learners must first reconcile it in some way with their previous ideas and experiences. This may mean changing what they believe, expanding their understanding, or disregarding the new information as irrelevant.
In this framework then, learning is not a process of transmission of information from teacher to student, a model which positions the student as a passive receptacle, but an active process of construction on the part of the learner that involves making meaning out of a multiplicity stimuli.

In practice, educators use active techniques (experiments, real-world examples, problem solving activities, dialogues) to introduce students to information and issues and then encourage students to reflect on and talk about what they did and how their understanding is changing. The teacher makes sure she understands the students' preexisting conceptions and guides activities to address and build on them. Constructivism also often utilizes collaboration and peer criticism as a way of facilitating students' abilities to reach a new level of understanding.

Relationship to Critical Pedagogy
Many of the characteristic tenets of critical pedagogy are consistent with a constructivist approach to education. Long before Paulo Freire (1921-1997) wrote Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1970), which contains his famous critique of the "banking concept of education" (education that revolves around the actions of teachers who "deposit" knowledge into their passive students), John Dewey (1859-1952), generally considered the founder of "progressive" education and constructivist educational theory in the United States, rejected teaching practices that positioned students as passive receptacles, such as the rote learning of isolated facts, advocating instead for a pedagogical approach that involved students' active engagement with each other and with the world. Like Freire, who embraced both "problem posing" and dialogic educational practices, Dewey emphasized the importance of active social learning environments, rather than one-sided lectures, and argued that learning involves the active construction of knowledge through engagement with ideas in meaningful contexts, rather than the passive absorption of isolated bits of information. And just as Freire maintained that education must engage with the language and experiences of learners, drawing upon their thematic universes, Dewey had also argued that learning takes place within meaningful contexts that allow students to build upon the knowledge they already have. Both argue that educators need to understand the experiences and world views of their students in order to successfully further the learning process. Moreover, both associate learning with critical reflection, with actively seeking after truth and applying it to future problems. They also draw a connection between critical reflection and politics, with Freire linking critical reflection with the fight against oppressive social conditions and Dewey linking it to responsible and ethical democratic citizenship.

Two Important Constructivists: John Dewey and Lev Vygotsky:

John Dewey (1859 - 1952), American philosopher and educator, is generally regarded as the progenitor of the progressive education movement as well as constructivist educational theory in the United States. Dewey rejected the practice of rote learning and instead argued that educators need to engage students in meaningful and relevant activities that allow them to actively apply the concepts they are attempting to learn. In Democracy and Education Dewey writes, "Education is not an affair of 'telling' and being told, but an active and constructive process." For Dewey, education must be grounded in experience and active inquiry. As such, he encouraged educators to implement real-world practical work-shops as well as to provide students with opportunities to reflect upon their experiences and to express their thoughts.

Three key educational texts by Dewey:

Democracy and Education, 1916.
Experience and Education, 1938.
How We Think, 1933.

Lev Vygotsky (1896 - 1934), Russian psychologist who sought to develop a Marxist theory of human intellectual development. His work has been revived by constructivist educators who have seen in texts like Mind in Society (1978) and Thought and Language (1962) support for their educational theories and practices. Specifically, Vygotsky's conception of the "zone of proximal development" has been of particular interest to educators and is frequently cited in the educational literature. Vygotsky defined the zone of proximal development as "the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers" (Mind in Society 86). Vygotsky's zone suggests that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition and has thus been embraced by constructivist educators who believe that real learning takes place in social situations that involve exchanges between learners. The common constructivist practices of collaborative learning, peer mentoring, group work, and peer review all draw on this idea that students can learn through meaningful interactions with their peers, rather than solely with the teacher. These kinds of learning situations can ultimately help students move to a new level of understanding and intellectual development. The zone also emphasizes the idea that learning takes time, that it is an active process that involves "problem solving" rather than memorization and repetition, and that "scaffolding," the constant adjustment of the level of help provided in response to the learner's development, plays an important role in helping students learn. For Vygotsky and many contemporary constructivists, teachers serve as mediators or facilitators who assist students in the formulation of the students' own levels of understanding through direct interventions or carefully designed projects.

Reference

http://mingo.info-science.uiowa.edu/~stevens/critped/terms.htm

Constructivism
(learning theory)
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Constructivism (art)
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John Dewey (1859–1952)
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Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934
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Jerome Bruner (1915-)
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Jean Piaget (1896–1980)
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